Suppose a function has side effects. If we take all the effects it produces as the input and output parameters, then the function is pure to the outside world.
So, for an impure function
f' :: Int -> Int
we add the RealWorld to the consideration
f :: Int -> RealWorld -> (Int, RealWorld)
-- input some states of the whole world,
-- modify the whole world because of the side effects,
-- then return the new world.
then f is pure again. We define a parametrized data type type IO a = RealWorld -> (a, RealWorld), so we don't need to type RealWorld so many times, and can just write
f :: Int -> IO Int
To the programmer, handling a RealWorld directly is too dangerous—in particular, if a programmer gets their hands on a value of type RealWorld, they might try to copy it, which is basically impossible. (Think of trying to copy the entire filesystem, for example. Where would you put it?) Therefore, our definition of IO encapsulates the states of the whole world as well.
Composition of "impure" functions
These impure functions are useless if we can't chain them together. Consider
getLine :: IO String ~ RealWorld -> (String, RealWorld)
getContents :: String -> IO String ~ String -> RealWorld -> (String, RealWorld)
putStrLn :: String -> IO () ~ String -> RealWorld -> ((), RealWorld)
We want to
- get a filename from the console,
- read that file, and
- print that file's contents to the console.
How would we do it if we could access the real world states?
printFile :: RealWorld -> ((), RealWorld)
printFile world0 = let (filename, world1) = getLine world0
(contents, world2) = (getContents filename) world1
in (putStrLn contents) world2 -- results in ((), world3)
We see a pattern here. The functions are called like this:
...
(<result-of-f>, worldY) = f worldX
(<result-of-g>, worldZ) = g <result-of-f> worldY
...
So we could define an operator ~~~ to bind them:
(~~~) :: (IO b) -> (b -> IO c) -> IO c
(~~~) :: (RealWorld -> (b, RealWorld))
-> (b -> RealWorld -> (c, RealWorld))
-> (RealWorld -> (c, RealWorld))
(f ~~~ g) worldX = let (resF, worldY) = f worldX
in g resF worldY
then we could simply write
printFile = getLine ~~~ getContents ~~~ putStrLn
without touching the real world.
"Impurification"
Now suppose we want to make the file content uppercase as well. Uppercasing is a pure function
upperCase :: String -> String
But to make it into the real world, it has to return an IO String. It is easy to lift such a function:
impureUpperCase :: String -> RealWorld -> (String, RealWorld)
impureUpperCase str world = (upperCase str, world)
This can be generalized:
impurify :: a -> IO a
impurify :: a -> RealWorld -> (a, RealWorld)
impurify a world = (a, world)
so that impureUpperCase = impurify . upperCase, and we can write
printUpperCaseFile =
getLine ~~~ getContents ~~~ (impurify . upperCase) ~~~ putStrLn
(Note: Normally we write getLine ~~~ getContents ~~~ (putStrLn . upperCase))
We were working with monads all along
Now let's see what we've done:
- We defined an operator
(~~~) :: IO b -> (b -> IO c) -> IO c which chains two impure functions together
- We defined a function
impurify :: a -> IO a which converts a pure value to impure.
Now we make the identification (>>=) = (~~~) and return = impurify, and see? We've got a monad.
Technical note
To ensure it's really a monad, there's still a few axioms which need to be checked too:
return a >>= f = f a
impurify a = (world -> (a, world))
(impurify a ~~~ f) worldX = let (resF, worldY) = (world -> (a, world )) worldX
in f resF worldY
= let (resF, worldY) = (a, worldX)
in f resF worldY
= f a worldX
f >>= return = f
(f ~~~ impurify) worldX = let (resF, worldY) = f worldX
in impurify resF worldY
= let (resF, worldY) = f worldX
in (resF, worldY)
= f worldX
f >>= (x -> g x >>= h) = (f >>= g) >>= h
Left as exercise.
