python - When is the existence of nonlocal variables checked?

Question

I am learning Python and right now I am on the topic of scopes and nonlocal statement. At some point I thought I figured it all out, but then nonlocal came and broke everything down.

Example number 1:

print( "let's begin" )
def a():
    def b():
        nonlocal x
        x = 20
    b()

a()

Running it naturally fails.
What is more interesting is that print() does not get executed. Why?.

My understanding was that enclosing def a() is not executed until print() is executed, and nested def b() is executed only when a() is called. I am confused...

Ok, let's try example number 2:

print( "let's begin" )
def a():
    if False: x = 10
    def b():
        nonlocal x
        x = 20
    b()

a()

Aaand... it runs fine. Whaaat?! How did THAT fix it? x = 10 in function a is never executed!

My understanding was that nonlocal statement is evaluated and executed at run-time, searching enclosing function's call contexts and binding local name x to some particular "outer" x. And if there is no x in outer functions - raise an exception. Again, at run-time.

But now it looks like this is done at the time of syntax analysis, with pretty dumb check "look in outer functions for x = blah, if there is something like this - we're fine," even if that x = blah is never executed...

Can anybody explain me when and how nonlocal statement is processed?

Answer 1

You can see what the scope of b knows about free variables (available for binding) from the scope of a, like so:

import inspect

print( "let's begin" )

def a():
    if False:
        x = 10

    def b():
        print(inspect.currentframe().f_code.co_freevars)
        nonlocal x
        x = 20

    b()

a()

Which gives:

let's begin
('x',)

If you comment out the nonlocal line, and remove the if statement with x inside, the you'll see the free variables available to b is just ().

So let's look at what bytecode instruction this generates, by putting the definition of a into IPython and then using dis.dis:

In [3]: import dis

In [4]: dis.dis(a)
  5           0 LOAD_CLOSURE             0 (x)
              2 BUILD_TUPLE              1
              4 LOAD_CONST               1 (<code object b at 0x7efceaa256f0, file "<ipython-input-1-20ba94fb8214>", line 5>)
              6 LOAD_CONST               2 ('a.<locals>.b')
              8 MAKE_FUNCTION            8
             10 STORE_FAST               0 (b)

 10          12 LOAD_FAST                0 (b)
             14 CALL_FUNCTION            0
             16 POP_TOP
             18 LOAD_CONST               0 (None)
             20 RETURN_VALUE

So then let's look at how LOAD_CLOSURE is processed in ceval.c.

TARGET(LOAD_CLOSURE) {
    PyObject *cell = freevars[oparg];
    Py_INCREF(cell);
    PUSH(cell);
    DISPATCH();
}

So we see it must look up x from freevars of the enclosing scope(s).

This is mentioned in the Execution Model documentation, where it says:

The nonlocal statement causes corresponding names to refer to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope. SyntaxError is raised at compile time if the given name does not exist in any enclosing function scope.